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Does AI Authorship Undermine Reader Engagement?

Imagine reading a compelling short story—now imagine being told it was written by AI. Would it feel the same? This question lies at the heart of two recent experiments investigating AI authorship and its impact on narrative transportation (Messingschlager & Appel, 2024), the psychological immersion readers experience while engaging with a story.

Study overview

As AI-generated content becomes increasingly prevalent, understanding how readers emotionally respond to AI-written stories has become more crucial than ever. In the first experiment of this investigation, Messingschlager and Appel (2024) examined how the belief that a story was authored by either an AI or a human influenced readers’ experiences. In Experiment 1, participants were randomly assigned to read a brief author biography indicating either a human or AI author, followed by a contemporary fiction story—all of which were actually written by humans. After reading, participants rated: 1) Narrative transportation; 2) Eeriness (a sense of discomfort or uncanniness); 3) Willingness to share the story with others; 4) Openness to experience and affinity for technology. Experiment 2 extended this design by incorporating both contemporary fiction and science fiction stories to examine whether genre influences the impact of perceived AI authorship.

Findings

In Experiment 1, the results revealed that narrative transportation significantly declined when readers believed the story was authored by AI. Interestingly, and contrary to expectations, AI authorship made the story feel less eerie, rather than more. Additionally, participants’ willingness to share the story was unaffected by the perceived authorship. Individual differences (i.e., openness to experience and technological affinity) did not moderate the effects of AI authorship on transportation, eeriness, or sharing intentions. While greater openness was associated with higher transportation and willingness to share overall, it did not buffer against the reduced engagement caused by AI attribution. 

In Experiment 2, the main finding was replicated: for contemporary fiction, perceived AI authorship again reduced narrative transportation. However, when it came to science fiction, no significant difference emerged between the AI and human author conditions. This suggests that genre plays a crucial role. Readers may view AI as a more legitimate or credible author within the science fiction genre—possibly because of the genre’s inherent association with technology and futurism. In this context, AI authorship may feel more fitting or even advantageous.

Disclaimer

This blog post is based on scientific research and is intended solely for public awareness.

For detailed information, please refer to the original article.

Messingschlager, T. V., & Appel, M. (2024). Creative artificial intelligence and narrative transportation. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 18(5), 848-857. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000495 

Can less actually mean more?

Reading fiction is filled with encounters with emotions. However, emotions in fiction may not be communicated in the same way across different types of fiction, particularly literary and popular fiction. Castano (2024) argues that the presence of emotions differs between literary and popular fiction.

Overview

 Literary fiction conveys emotions in a nuanced, intangible, and indirect manner, requiring readers to engage in deeper cognitive and emotional inference to understand characters' affective states, while popular fiction presents emotions more explicitly and accessibly, providing clear emotional cues that reduce the need for interpretation. According to his view, the likelihood of a work being classified as literary, but not popular, increases with higher implicit emotion, while a greater presence of explicit emotion decreases this likelihood, a concept referred to as the "less-is-more" hypothesis (Castano, 2024).

In fact, he argues against the straightforward idea that reading literary fiction enhances emotion recognition simply because literary fiction is replete with affective words (Castano, 2024). Instead, literary fiction, but not popular fiction, enhances emotion recognition most effectively—and makes it automatic—because it avoids explicitly labeling emotions (e.g., "Raymond is sad") and instead "shows" emotional states through concrete descriptions and implicit cues.

This approach, therefore, triggers inferential processes, training readers to better recognize others' mental states, enhancing two closely related social cognition abilities, namely mentalizing—where individuals attempt to understand others' perspectives—and emotion recognition—where individuals become more adept at identifying others’ emotions, particularly through non-verbal cues—beyond the fictional context (Castano, 2024).

Disclaimer

This blog post is based on scientific research and is intended solely for public awareness.

For detailed information, please refer to the original article.

Castano, E. (2024). Less Is More: How the Language of Fiction Fosters Emotion Recognition. Emotion Review, 16(2), 73-83. https://doi.org/10.1177/17540739241232350

Picture Credit.

Still Life With Books And Vase, Art Painting by Claude Raguet Hirst

Print and Digital Reading: How Technology Elevates Adolescents’ Immersive Reading Experience

In an era where digital distractions are often blamed for declining reading habits, a recent qualitative case study offers new insights into how adolescents engage with fiction both in print and digitally (Loh, 2024). This study reveals that young readers are highly motivated by immersive fiction and seamless access to engaging content. The research highlights the interplay between print and digital media, illustrating how contemporary adolescents navigate various platforms to satisfy their reading interests.

Study overview

Loh (2024) adopted a case study on 12 Singaporean students (aged 14 and 15) and used a mobile ethnography approach to examine contemporary print and new media (fiction) leisure reading habits among adolescents. Mobile ethnography leverages smartphones as tools for adolescent participants, positioning them as co-investigators in documenting and recording their own reading activities. Loh used this method to capture the actual, real-time reading practices of adolescents as they occurred in their everyday lives, both in and out of school. The data collection process spanned four days, encompassing two weekdays and two weekend days. During this period, the students used an interactive mobile ethnography app on their smartphones to document their reading activities by taking images or videos of their reading experiences in print and on digital devices (laptop and smartphone) over the four days.

Findings

The study found that adolescents are more likely to engage in reading when they anticipate an immersive and entertaining experience. According to Loh (2024), three key factors contribute to this immersive experience: compelling stories, cross-platform interaction, and ease of technological access. The study found adolescents are drawn to narratives with engaging plots and relatable characters, which keep them invested in the story. Beyond simply reading, many young readers interact with narratives across various media platforms. For example, they often read books after watching movie adaptations or engage with manga after being introduced to anime. This cross-platform engagement strengthens their connection to stories and enhances their overall reading pleasure. Additionally, adolescents’ reading activities are shaped by social and technological infrastructures that support their access to fiction. The study highlights that digital platforms, such as the National Library Board app and Wattpad, play a significant role in encouraging reading by offering free, searchable, and continuously updated content, personalized recommendations, and community interactions. Adolescents value the convenience of digital tools, which provide immediate access to a wide range of content while fostering a sense of connection with fellow readers.

Generally, adolescents engage in reading when they encounter compelling stories, can interact with narratives across different media, and have seamless access to reading materials through digital platforms.

Disclaimer

This blog post is based on scientific research and is intended solely for public awareness.

For detailed information, please refer to the original article.

Loh, C. E. (2024). What Makes adolescents want to read? Examining adolescents’ contemporary print and new media (fiction) leisure reading through mobile ethnography. Language and Education, 38(4), 596-616. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2024.2326099

Why Teens Pick Up (or Put Down) Books

Reading books is an enjoyable activity, yet many people, particularly adolescents, choose not to engage in it. Have you ever wondered what drives some to pick up a book while others avoid it? A study by Wilkinson et al. (2020) explored this question, focusing on why 15- and 16-year-olds opt for or against reading printed books—excluding e-books or digital formats.

Study overview

The researchers adopted a qualitative approach to uncover the reasons. They interviewed 39 high school students, blending professional-led interviews with a unique twist: training 10 adolescents to conduct peer-to-peer interviews. This method aimed to foster informal discussions, revealing authentic perspectives on reading habits and motivations. The findings from both interview types were then synthesized for a comprehensive analysis.

Findings

The study highlighted distinct reasons behind adolescents’ choices. For those who enjoy reading, books offer: relaxation, absorption, escapism, knowledge, empathy, social benefits (e.g. fostering friendships and sparking meaningful conversations) and excitement. Conversely, non-readers cited several barriers, including time constraints, lost habits, distractions, and commitment. Reading appeals differently to each individual, shaped by personal interests and circumstances. To encourage non-readers, we must first understand their specific barriers—whether it’s time, distractions, or disinterest—and address them effectively.

Disclaimer

This blog post is based on scientific research and is intended solely for public awareness.

For detailed information, please refer to the original article.

Wilkinson, K., Andries, V., Howarth, D., Bonsall, J., Sabeti, S., & McGeown, S. (2020). Reading During Adolescence: Why Adolescents Choose (or Do Not Choose) Books. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 64(2), 157-166. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.1065

Picture Credit.

Girl reading a book by Jean-Honoré Fragonard

What Happens in Our Brain When We Read Literary Short Stories?

Have you ever wondered what happens in your brain when you lose yourself in a gripping short story? Research shows that reading fiction isn’t just a passive activity—it’s an immersive experience that engages multiple brain regions. When we read, we simulate the story in three distinct ways: motor simulation (imagining physical actions), perceptual simulation (re-enacting sensory experiences), and mental simulation (understanding characters’ inner worlds). But what are the neural substrates of these simulations? Do they follow distinct pathways, or do they converge in a specific brain region? Mak and colleagues' (2023) study sheds light on these questions.

Study overview

In this study, researchers recruited 40 participants aged 18–43 with normal vision and no history of dyslexia, brain surgery, or epilepsy. Participants read two short, descriptive stories inside an MRI scanner and equipped with an eye-tracking device to monitor their eye movements during reading. While still undergoing brain scanning, their subjective experiences of the stories were assessed using questionnaires measuring story world absorption and story appreciation. After the scan, their trait-level personal characteristics were evaluated through empathy and transportability questionnaires.

Findings

The study showed three distinct but overlapping neural pathways activated during narrative processing: motor simulation (premotor cortex and supplementary motor area), perceptual simulation (visual cortex and sensory regions), and mental simulation (temporoparietal junction and medial prefrontal cortex). These pathways converge in the supramarginal gyrus*, an important region for referential indexing (integrating references within a text), situation model building, and integration of sensory, emotional, and cognitive aspects of a story.

Eye movement analysis showed that motor descriptions were read faster, while perceptual and mental descriptions slowed reading due to more complex cognitive demands. Furthermore, trait-level factors like empathy and transportability had a stronger influence on brain activation than state-based factors like story absorption, emphasizing the role of personality in narrative simulation.

* The supramarginal gyrus functions as a hub where multiple brain networks intersect, including the default mode network (involved in self-perception and mind-wandering) and the mentalizing network (responsible for social cognition).

Disclaimer

This blog post is based on scientific research about the brain's response to reading fiction and is intended solely for public awareness.

For detailed information, please refer to the original article.

Mak, M., Faber, M., & Willems, R. M. (2023). Different kinds of simulation during literary reading: Insights from a combined fMRI and eye-tracking study. Cortex, 162, 115-135. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2023.01.014

Picture Credit.

Miss Auras, The Red Book by John Lavery

Can Watching Fictional TV Series Boost Social Cognition?

You’ve likely heard the common belief that reading fiction is beneficial, while watching TV series is often dismissed as unproductive. But what about fictional TV series? Could they have a positive impact on empathy and theory of mind compared to non-fictional documentaries? Researchers Lenhart and Richter (2024) explored this question through a series of experiments to determine whether fictional TV series, which depict human lives and inner experiences, could enhance these cognitive and emotional abilities.

Study overview

In the first two studies, with a combined total of 366 participants, university-aged students were randomly assigned to watch either fictional TV series (3 episodes in total) or documentary series (3 episodes in total). These sessions were spread over a period of seven days (Study 1) and five days with a follow-up tests (Study 2). Participants' empathy and theory of mind were evaluated both before and after viewing the content, using established measures such as the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) and the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET). 

The third study involved 46 university-aged students in a controlled lab setting. Participants watched an increased number of episodes—five fictional TV series episodes or six documentary episodes—across four sessions over 7 to 10 days. Empathy was measured using the IRI as both a pre- and post-test, while theory of mind was evaluated using both the RMET and the Movie for the Assessment of Social Cognition as pre- and post-tests.

Findings

Across all three studies, researchers found no statistically significant improvement in empathy or theory of mind for participants who watched fictional TV series compared to those who watched non-fictional documentaries. These studies highlight the need for further research into the potential cognitive and emotional impacts of fictional TV series. 

For detailed information, please refer to the original article.

Lenhart, J., & Richter, T. (2024). Does Watching Fictional TV Series Increase Social-Cognitive Skills? Scientific Study of Literature. https://doi.org/10.61645/ssol.184

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Family Television by Nick Banks

I Read More Fiction, Therefore, I Don’t Care About Cover Art

How do we choose fiction books? What factors influence our choices the most when buying one? Are these factors the same when we buy a fiction book for ourselves or as a gift for someone else? Previously, we talked about a feature that can make a fiction book especially appealing to readers—the "narrative reversal." This is a storytelling method where the expected outcome of a story is completely turned around. Narrative reversal is a textual feature. However, there are factors beyond the text itself, called paratextual factors, that can also influence our decision to buy a fiction book. So, what are these paratextual factors? A study by Leitãoet al. (2018) looked into this question. They explored what drives readers’ behavior when choosing fiction books and investigated whether these factors change depending on whether the book is for personal use or being purchased as a gift.

Study overview

The researchers surveyed 487 participants to understand their behavior when buying fiction books. Participants answered a questionnaire about 24 book features, such as the book title, recommendations from family and friends, well-known authors, and advertisements at the point of sale. They rated the importance of each feature on a 7-point scale, where 7 meant "most important" and 1 meant "least important," for both personal purchases and buying books as gifts. The survey also included questions about impulsive buying habits and socio-demographic details. It was conducted both online through a web-based tool and in person at bookstores in three cities.

Findings

The study identified several factors that influence readers' decisions when buying fiction books. Most of these factors were consistent whether the book was for personal use or as a gift. Key common factors included: 1) Book subject, 2) Recommendations from family and friends, 3) Discounts or sales, 4) Synopsis.

Other shared factors were grouped into four broad categories with sub-factors:

1. Public exposure and in-store display (e.g., staff recommendations, social media mentions, bestseller displays).
2. Author and book recognition (e.g., Nobel Prize-winning or award-winning authors).
3. Author information on the cover (e.g., author biography).
4. Title and cover art (e.g., cover images)

However, two significant differences were observed when comparing purchases for oneself versus as a gift: those buying fiction books for personal use relied more on "Recommendations from family and friends," while those buying books as gifts placed greater importance on "Author and book recognition." This reflects the tendency of gift-givers to be more cautious and avoid risks.

Among the various book-related attributes, younger readers placed more value on "Title and Cover Art" and "Books with Discounts/On Sale," while frequent readers and buyers cared less about cover art and prioritized "Author Information on the Cover."

In terms of gender, women valued all attributes more than men when purchasing gifts.

Regarding impulsivity, people were more likely to buy books on impulse when shopping for themselves rather than as gifts. Women showed higher impulsivity when buying for personal use, but there were no significant gender differences in impulsive gift purchases. It seems people exercise more self-control when buying fiction books as gifts compared to when buying for themselves.

Overall, the study revealed that women and highly educated individuals read and buy more fiction books than men and less educated individuals. Older participants also purchased more books compared to younger ones.

Our Previous Post on Narrative reversal.

https://homofictusbulletin.blogspot.com/2024/08/narrative-reversal.html

For detailed information, please refer to the original article.

Leitão, L., Amaro, S., Henriques, C., & Fonseca, P. (2018). Do consumers judge a book by its cover? A study of the factors that influence the purchasing of books. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 42, 88-97. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2018.01.015

Picture Credit.

Bookstore by John Farnsworth

Does Comprehension Differ When Reading Narratives on a Screen vs. in Print?

You might wonder how reading a narrative on a digital screen differs from reading it on paper when it comes to comprehension. With digital devices becoming increasingly widespread in recent decades, it is worth asking: do digital screens offer a better opportunity for high comprehension of narratives than print—or perhaps it is the other way around? How so, and why? A meta-analysis (Delgado et al., 2018) examined studies from 2000 to 2017 that compared reading comprehension for texts presented on paper vs. on digital devices. The study aimed to determine whether the reading medium affects comprehension and to identify any moderating factors influencing these effects.

Study overview

The meta-analysis was conducted in two parts: one for 38 studies using between-participants designs (Hedges’ g = −0.21; 95% CI: −0.28, −0.14; k = 56) and another for 16 studies using within-participants designs (dc = −0.21; 95% CI: −0.37, −0.06; k = 18). To address the issue of multiple comparisons, specific strategies were employed to combine or average effect sizes while ensuring the statistical independence of the data. Several criteria were applied to select eligible studies. The studies had to compare comprehension between paper and digital reading, and participants needed to read individually and silently.  Reading materials had to be comparable across media in content, structure, and images. Participants also had to come from a normative population without reading difficulties or cognitive impairments. 

The analysis considered substantive variables such as text genre (informational, narrative, or both), reading time frame (self-paced vs. time-constrained), and scrolling needs, along with extrinsic variables (e.g., publishing status) and methodological variables (e.g., sample size, sampling method).

Findings

Overall, Delgado et al. (2018) found that both between-participants and within-participants study designs indicated that paper-based reading leads to better comprehension than digital reading (Hedges’ g = −0.21; d_c = −0.21), reflecting a “print superiority.” More interestingly, they revealed that the magnitude of the paper-based reading advantage has increased steadily over time, from 2000 to 2017. This finding challenges the assumption that screen inferiority would diminish as digital technology becomes more prevalent and users gain more experience.

However, when it comes to narrative reading, the meta-analysis revealed a significant moderating effect of text genre, meaning the advantage of paper-based reading varied depending on the type of text. The advantage of paper was evident for both informational texts and mixed texts (informational and narrative), but not for narrative texts on their own. This suggests that, for informational texts— which typically require deeper processing and more effortful comprehension— paper-based reading shows a significant advantage. A similar pattern emerged in studies using a mix of informational and narrative texts, again showing a notable advantage for paper-based reading. Interestingly, for studies focusing solely on narrative texts, no significant difference in comprehension was found between paper and digital formats. This indicates that the drawbacks of digital reading may be less pronounced when the text is engaging and easier to process, as is often the case with narratives. However, it is important to note that the number of comparisons involving only narrative texts was relatively small in literature, making it challenging to draw definitive conclusions about the influence of text genre.

For detailed information, please refer to the original article.

Delgado, P., Vargas, C., Ackerman, R., & Salmerón, L. (2018). Don't throw away your printed books: A meta-analysis on the effects of reading media on reading comprehension. Educational Research Review, 25, 23-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.09.003

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"Soaking Up The Sun" by Linda Hugues

The Power of Queer Fiction: Fostering Empathy & Identity Exploration

Reading fiction is a pleasurable pastime. Yet, few stories represent socially marginalized groups, and many studies tend to focus on readers from a broad perspective, often overlooking individual differences. This approach can limit our understanding of how literature might support diverse groups. Among these groups, queer individuals present a fascinating population to study, particularly in how they engage with their identity through queer literature and whether such exposure can foster social outcomes like empathy. Queer individuals are people who identify outside of traditional gender norms and sexual orientations, such as those who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, asexual, non-binary, genderqueer, or genderfluid, among others. Queer fiction is literature that focuses on their stories and experiences. This could mean characters who identify as LGBTQ+, stories that dive into the complexities of gender and sexual identity, or themes like coming out, challenging societal expectations, or building relationships in ways that break away from the norm. In a recent study by Herb and Betts (2024), researchers explored how queer individuals interact with queer young adult (YA) literature and whether long-term exposure to these texts can influence their empathy. They posed an intriguing question: How does engagement with queer YA literature shape the development of empathy among queer readers?

Study overview

Herb and Betts conducted a qualitative study using focus groups to collect data. Focus groups allow participants to share their thoughts, feelings, and experiences in-depth, enabling researchers to explore complex issues. The study involved 23 queer participants, aged 18 to 30, divided into three focus groups to provide more space for participants to share their experiences and for researchers to manage the discussions. Over an eight-month period, participants met monthly to discuss pre-selected novels featuring queer protagonists.

The chosen texts represented a variety of queer experiences, spanning identities such as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, asexual, intersex, genderqueer, genderfluid, and non-binary. The narratives were selected based on criteria such as literary merit, the presence of hope or positive resolutions, and themes like pride, resilience, challenging stereotypes, and promoting social justice and empathy.

Findings

The study's findings were compelling. Participants consistently emphasized how queer YA literature fosters empathetic responses. By engaging with these texts, they were able to better understand and relate to experiences beyond their own. The discussions also provided a cathartic experience, allowing participants to develop self-empathy and reflect on their identities. Researchers found that reading queer narratives helped participants explore their identities and experiences while challenging negative social depictions of queer individuals and normalizing intersectional queer experiences. A notable finding was the role queer YA literature played in motivating participants to advocate for social change. The literature not only deepened their understanding of diverse experiences but also inspired them to support marginalized groups.

Overall, this research highlights how literature can serve as a powerful catalyst for empathy, identity exploration, and activism.

For detailed information, please refer to the original article.

Herb, A., & Betts, D. (2024). Queering the Book Club: Empathy Development Through Young Adult Literature in Australian Discussion Groups. Children's Literature in Education, 55(3), 432-448. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10583-022-09512-w

Picture Credit.

"The Reader" by William Tolliver

Why Are Some Fictions More Popular Than Others?

Stories are intertwined with our daily lives. We share stories about our recent experiences, such as visiting a flower garden with friends, watching movies or TV shows, or even reading fictional narratives. These activities often reflect how we engage with fiction. In this context, it seems that some stories are more popular than others. Why is that? What techniques make certain stories more appealing to readers while others fade into obscurity? Researchers have attempted to answer this question. Knight et al. (2024) focused on a storytelling technique called 'narrative reversal' and explored whether it predicts a story's popularity. Narrative reversal is a storytelling method where the expected outcome of a story is flipped on its head, e.g., see this: a detective tries to catch a thief, but then finds out the thief was actually returning stolen items to their rightful owners. This technique often surprises audiences by challenging their assumptions and subverting common tropes. In the brief story above, readers initially expect a typical crime narrative—a hero pursuing a criminal. However, the twist reveals that it's the other way around. The researchers hypothesize that the extent of narrative reversal can predict a story's popularity and how engaged readers become with it.

Study overview

To test their hypothesis, Knight and colleagues employed computational linguistics methods to analyze a large dataset of novels. They studied 8,663 English-language novels spanning genres from war and to fantasy. The sample only included texts categorized as “fiction” or “literature” and containing at least 50,000 words. The source of these novels was the Project Gutenberg dataset, as curated by Gerlach and Font-Clos.

To measure narrative reversal in the collected novels, the study utilized a computational approach that analyzed the affective trajectory of the texts as the narratives unfolded. The affective trajectory refers to the emotional tone or sentiment of the story as it progresses. The researchers used a trend detection algorithm to pinpoint moments in the narrative where significant changes in sentiment (e.g., shifts from positive to negative) occurred, identifying these moments as reversals. According to the study, “the identifying facet of a narrative reversal is an observable shift in the valence of the story”.

In addition to narrative reversals, they also measured the magnitude of these reversals. According to them, “every moment in a good story should either introduce a new ‘turn,’ increasing reversal quantity, or build to a greater ‘opposite,’ increasing reversal magnitude” (p. 2). The magnitude of reversals was quantified by measuring the average size of these sentiment changes, indicating the extent of emotional shifts occurring at each reversal point.

To assess popularity, they used download counts from Project Gutenberg as a proxy. The researchers hypothesized that novels with more frequent and larger reversals would have higher download rates.

Findings

They found that novels with a higher number of reversals and larger average magnitudes were significantly more popular, as indicated by download counts. This result held true even after controlling for several confounding factors, such as sentiment volatility, novel length, publication year, genre, stylistic differences, and story types.

Surprisingly, they found that the same pattern applied to other media, such as movies and TV shows. Narrative reversals in these formats also predicted popularity.

Overall, the research shows that turning points in stories are essential for their popularity; the more a story employs the narrative reversal technique, the more readers are drawn to it. The implications of this study offer practical insights for creators in fields such as filmmaking and writing. By understanding the power of narrative reversals, storytellers can craft more engaging narratives and enhance overall audience engagement.

For detailed information, please refer to the original article.

Knight, S., Rocklage, M. D., & Bart, Y. (2024). Narrative reversals and story success. Science Advances, 10(34), eadl2013. https://doi.org/doi:10.1126/sciadv.adl2013

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"The book worm and her favorite book" by Will Houghton

Does Language Affect Fiction Transportation?

We love reading fiction. It allows us to escape reality and become fully immersed in another world. While reading, we often lose track of time, mimic the emotions of the characters, focus intently on the story, and place ourselves in the characters' shoes. This deep engagement is known as "narrative transportation," where we feel as if we are spectators within the story.

This raises an interesting question: does the language we read in affect our level of transportation? Some of us read fiction in our native language, while others prefer to read in a second language. Do both groups experience the same level of being transported? Are they equally drawn into the story, or does the language (native vs. non-native) influence their experience? To answer these questions, Chung-Fat-Yim et al. (2019) conducted an experiment (Experiment 1).

Study overview

Chung-Fat-Yim et al. studied 143 adult participants, including 87 native English speakers and 56 non-native English speakers. Participants were randomly assigned to read one of two short stories provided by the researchers. The stories featured a student pursuing an academic goal, with one version ending in success and the other in failure.

After the reading sessions, participants completed a validated scale to rate their level of transportation. They answered questions on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from ‘Not at all’ to ‘Very much’. Sample questions included: “While reading the narrative, I could easily picture the events taking place,” “The narrative affected me emotionally,” and “I was mentally involved in the narrative while reading it.”

Findings

According to the data from the study, researchers suggest that both native and non-native readers experience the same level of transportation while reading fiction. In other words, regardless of whether one is a native or non-native speaker, it appears that narrative transportation can be achieved equally. They also discovered that years of English fluency did not strongly relate to narrative transportation, even after controlling for age.

Surprisingly, this effect held true across different modalities. Participants in both the native and non-native groups experienced similar levels of transportation when exposed to auditory stories (Experiment 2) or films (Experiment 3).

For detailed information, please refer to the original article.

Chung-Fat-Yim, A., Cilento, E., Piotrowska, E., & Mar, R. A. (2019). Are stories just as transporting when not in your native tongue? Language and Cognition, 11(2), 285-309. https://doi.org/10.1017/langcog.2019.15

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"Girl reading book" by Fatima Karashaeva

Using Fantasy Stories to Foster Positive Attitudes in Children Towards Minorities

The real physical world has limitations that restrict us from fully experiencing it. Fictional worlds do not have these limitations. For example, it is costly to meet people from different cultures face-to-face, and it is impossible to travel through time to converse with people who lived centuries ago. Direct contact might be difficult in the real world. However, reading fiction can enrich our experiences through indirect contact. By reading fiction, people can indirectly meet individuals from other cultures. In fiction, the hero "acts as a fictional friend and role model for the reader" (p. 83). This "positive vicarious experience" can help readers change their social and cognitive perspectives as well as their attitudes.

Empirical studies have questioned whether reading fictional stories can help change readers' attitudes toward minorities. For example, in a recent study, Oľhová and colleagues (2023) examined whether reading fantasy stories improved the attitudes of Slovakian elementary students toward minorities (i.e., wheelchair users, the Hungarian minority, Black people, Muslims, the Roma, homosexuals, and refugees). They studied whether reading alone or reading with relevant activities (i.e., group discussion) could change attitudes.

To investigate this question, they conducted a pretest-posttest study where participants' attitudes were measured before and after reading the stimuli to observe differences.

Study overview

The study investigated 177 sixth-grade Slovakian students, aged 11 to 12 years old. Students were randomly assigned to experimental conditions. In one condition, students read passages from the Harry Potter series for five weeks; in another condition, they read and discussed the passages for five weeks; and in the last condition (control group), students received no intervention stimuli. Before reading, participants' intergroup emotional attitudes were measured using a feeling thermometer. After reading, participants' intergroup emotional attitudes were measured again using a feeling thermometer, and they filled out questionnaires regarding perspective-taking and narrative transportation.

Findings

The study found that the intervention using indirect intergroup contact, specifically reading passages from the Harry Potter series and engaging in discussions, had a significant impact on intergroup attitudes. The results show that the intervention led to a positive change in attitudes towards the Roma minority, refugees, homosexuals, and Muslims. In particular, the intervention that involved reading followed by discussion had a relatively large and significant effect on attitudes towards the Roma minority compared to reading alone. However, attitudes towards Black people, the Hungarian minority, and wheelchair users remained unchanged following the intervention. Importantly, the intervention did not worsen intergroup attitudes towards any minority group, highlighting the overall positive impact of the intervention on intergroup attitudes.

The study found two key mediators in the effectiveness of the intervention on improving intergroup attitudes: 1) narrative transportation and, 2) perspective-taking. These two factors were found to play crucial roles in mediating the impact of the intervention on intergroup attitudes, with higher levels of narrative transportation and perspective-taking leading to more positive changes in attitudes towards minority groups, particularly the Roma minority.

For detailed information, please refer to the original article.

Oľhová, S., Lášticová, B., Kundrát, J. et al. Using fiction to improve intergroup attitudes: Testing indirect contact interventions in a school context. Soc Psychol Educ 26, 81–105 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-022-09708-4

Picture Credit.

Attributed to Piotr Konchalovsky "The portrait of a boy reading book" 1940's

Fiction's Evolutionary Functionality

Many of us are drawn to fiction. We immerse ourselves in fictional narratives in our daily lives, whether through enjoying written fiction, binge-watching TV series, or engaging in other forms of it. Fictional worlds offer a unique experience, transporting us to imaginative worlds. What makes fiction so entertaining? This experience may not be as readily encountered when consuming non-fictional works. Non-fiction, relative to fiction, often appears less attractive, less entertaining, and more rigid in structure and form. So, why are fictional narratives more appealing and attractive than their non-fiction counterparts? The answer might seem straightforward: because fiction encourages immersion in imaginary worlds, while non-fiction does not. However, the endpoint is not as simple. The response to this question may not be so straightforward. To address this and relevant questions, we want to draw your attention to an evolutionary hypothesis recently proposed by Edgar Dubourg and Nicolas Baumard (2022). According to Dubourg and Baumard, fictional narratives are entertainment technologies invented by the human mind, derived from specific motivations, and produced by specific cognitive mechanisms to grab the audience's attention and fulfill specific evolutionary goals.

Fiction as an adaptive behavior

Do humans have evolved cognitive mechanisms specifically for creating fictional narratives? The hypothesis suggests that humans have not evolved specialized cognitive mechanisms for producing fiction. Instead, they have employed pre-existing cognitive mechanisms, which evolved for various purposes, to develop fiction. For example, humans have used language, as an evolved tool, to create and communicate compelling narratives, characters, and imaginary worlds. They have also utilized simulating and theory of mind abilities, as evolved tools, to mentally simulate hypothetical scenarios, counterfactuals, and to understand and portray the thoughts, intentions, and emotions of fictional characters. By leveraging these pre-existing tools, humans can create compelling and engaging fictional narratives. Thus, there are no specifically evolved cognitive mechanisms for producing fiction. Despite not having specific evolved tools for producing fiction, the fiction-as-entertainment-technology hypothesis views fiction similarly to other cultural inventions like kayaks or computers, designed by the human mind to fulfill specific adaptive goals. According to this standpoint, fiction can bring evolutionary benefits for consumers.

Evolutionary goals and motivations of fiction for humans

According to the arguments, fiction's attractiveness and entertainment value enable it to fulfill various evolutionarily relevant goals that require capturing attention. For example, fiction can transmit adaptive information related to foraging, knowledge transmission, signaling one’s values to potential mates, communicating social norms, and fostering cooperation to achieve fitness-related goals. Additionally, fiction can contribute to building reputation and derive economic or material gains. Through the production of engaging narratives, individuals can enhance their reputation within their social group, potentially increasing their social status and influence. Fiction also serves as a means to signal one's values to potential mates or cooperative partners, thus influencing social interactions and relationships. The sustained popularity of fiction production and consumption may stem from the fitness benefits it provides to consumers.

    However, the hypothesis places particular emphasis on one of the most adaptive goals: "entertaining other people." Fiction serves as a form of entertainment that captures individuals' attention and interest, providing them with pleasurable experiences and engaging narratives.

How and why is fictional narrative entertaining?

Fiction is argued to be attention-grabbing, entertaining, and appealing to consumers. But why? Fictional narratives include content-based elements such as imaginary worlds, love stories, conflicts, and monsters. These features, referred to as "content-based attraction" or "superstimuli," are ingrained in the human mind from an evolutionary perspective. They are designed to mimic stimuli that naturally capture human attention, like love stories. These features in fiction are tailored to align with these innate tendencies, making them highly appealing to the human mind.

Why fictions are more appealing than non-fiction?

Fictional narratives hold greater appeal than non-fiction due to their utilization of attention-grabbing stimuli, which captivate the human mind. In fictional narratives, creators have the liberty to employ these stimuli more freely. This distinguishes fiction from non-fiction, where such elements are less prevalent. The obligation to adhere to real facts in non-fictional works often restricts producers from inventing or exaggerating features, as emphasized by Dubourg and Baumard. Thus, while consumers turn to non-fiction for knowledge acquisition, their evaluation is not primarily based on entertainment value, but rather on fulfilling informational needs.

    Therefore, the primary characteristic of any fictional narrative should be to entertain the audience. The entertainment value of a work is determined by its embedded captivating content-based features, which dictate its appeal. As creators understand and incorporate these stimulating elements into their work, the resulting narrative becomes more engaging. This entertainment value extends beyond mere enjoyment; fictional narratives serve evolutionarily relevant goals by transmitting social knowledge and fulfilling innate human desires.

In a nutshell

In summary, humans lack specifically evolved mechanisms for creating fictional narratives. Instead, they utilize pre-existing cognitive mechanisms, such as language, to produce fiction. Despite this, it is suggested that fiction can be used for evolutionary benefits for humans. For example, individuals can signal their values, beliefs, and cultural preferences to others by creating and consuming fiction. The fiction-as-entertainment-technology hypothesis proposes that the production of fiction can fulfill a specific adaptive goal, which is to "entertain other people." To satisfy this need, fictional narratives should incorporate interesting stimuli that are hard-wired to the human mind, such as love stories.

For detailed information, please refer to the original article.

Dubourg, E., & Baumard, N. (2022). Why and How Did Narrative Fictions Evolve? Fictions as Entertainment Technologies. Front Psychol, 13, 786770. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.786770

Picture Credit.

"La Liseuse" by Henri Matisse (1895)

The Sci-Fi effect: Boosting creativity in STEM fields

Every day, many of us immerse ourselves in fiction for enjoyment, whether through reading, watching, or listening to stories. Some of us even have a particular interest for specific genres like Science-Fiction (Sci-Fi). Sci-Fi is fascinating, sparking discussions about how enjoyable and beneficial it can be for audiences (check here for more). But with all this interest, there are still big questions hanging around: is there solid empirical evidence supporting the idea that exposure to Sci-Fi is indeed beneficial? And if there is, which ability could it affect? Does this impact hold true across all demographics?

To explore these questions empirically, I would direct your attention to the findings from a recent study by Veronica Marozzo and her colleagues (2024) from Italy. Their research promises illuminating insights.

Study overview

Marozzo and her colleagues conducted an experiment to determine whether exposure to a short Sci-Fi TV series could affect viewers' creativity. Their experiment specifically aimed to investigate how individual academic preferences, particularly a preference for STEM subjects (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics), influenced the impact of exposure to a short Sci-Fi TV series on viewers' creativity. Furthermore, they investigated divergent thinking, which entails generating numerous novel ideas.

    To find the answers, Marozzo et al. (2024) recruited 204 university students who either had a STEM background or a non-STEM background (i.e., other disciplines). They were randomly assigned to one of two experimental conditions, in which they either watched a 45-minute Sci-Fi TV series or a 45-minute non-Sci-Fi TV series.

    In the Sci-Fi series condition, participants were presented with a TV series depicting humanity's colonization of the solar system in a distant future era set in deep space, delving into the socio-economic dynamics and conflicts among various factions. In the non-Sci-Fi condition, participants watched a TV series about the experiences of workers on a offshore oil platform after an explosion, focusing on their struggles and the risks they encounter.

    After watching, all participants were asked to complete a task. In this task, participants were presented with a problem of a social nature (i.e., the management of a waste process). After delivering the task, participants were asked to generate as many solutions and ideas as possible that could improve the problem (i.e., divergent thinking). Participants were also informed that the ideas and solutions should not already be present in their hometown.

    Thus, the researchers instructed the participants to generate ideas and solutions to the problem as an index of divergent creativity. In terms of scoring, researchers proposed four criteria: 1) originality (uncommon ideas compared to overall responses); 2) fluency (the number of relevant ideas); 3) flexibility (in how many fields responders provided ideas); 4) elaboration (the amount of detail for each idea). They calculated the mean of creativity.

The interaction of Sci-Fi and academic background

Regarding creativity and individuals' background, the results showed no significant impact of exposure to sci-fi. However, they found a significant interaction between Sci-Fi and individuals' backgrounds. Planned analysis showed that participants with a STEM background showed enhanced divergent creativity after watching a Sci-Fi TV series, while participants with a non-STEM background showed less creativity after watching a Sci-Fi TV series compared to a non-Sci-Fi TV series.

    Additionally, the study showed a short-term effect of Sci-Fi on divergent creativity, wherein exposure to a 45-minute Sci-Fi TV series could improve participants' divergent creativity. However, this effect is not consistent across all populations, as individuals with different disciplines showed less creativity.

    The reason behind these findings suggests that the Sci-Fi genre may enhance critical thinking in people with a STEM background because of their analytical and problem-solving thinking patterns, while it may not have the same effect on non-STEM individuals due to their preference for realistic and tangible scenarios.

    Overall, this study has shown that brief exposure to the Sci-Fi genre enhances creativity. However, the enhanced creativity was not consistent across all individuals, as participants with a STEM background benefited more from exposure to Sci-Fi, while participants with a non-STEM background may not find effective results.

For detailed information, please refer to the original article.

Marozzo, V., Crupi, A., Abbate, T., Cesaroni, F., & Corvello, V. (2024). The impact of watching science fiction on the creativity of individuals: The role of STEM background. Technovation, 132, 102994. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.technovation.2024.102994

Picture Credit.

"Unwanted Guest" by Alex Shuper

Learn more about the surprising link between Sci-Fi and creativity!

https://homofictusbulletin.blogspot.com/2024/02/sci-fi-enjoyment.html